Stomach Cancer Essay Example

Stomach Cancer Essay The human body is a complex system that has to be fully understood by us. It houses all the systems necessary for life. Each system works dependently with each other to sustain life. To acquire optimum body functioning, there should be a healthy relationship between the systems in our body.   Stomach, being part of the digestive system, holds a critical role in our body.   Like all the other organs in the human body, several alterations have been recorded that are considered threat to the human health. One of these is stomach cancer or otherwise known as gastric cancer. In order to understand what gastric is, it is imperative to determine first the anatomical and physiological structure of the stomach. This paper seeks to answer the following questions: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is a stomach? 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is stomach cancer? We will write a custom essay sample on Stomach Cancer specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Stomach Cancer specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Stomach Cancer specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What causes stomach cancer? 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is stomach cancer caused by an individual’s genetic make up? 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is stomach cancer caused by an individual’s environmental factors? 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   How is stomach cancer diagnosed? 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What are the current treatments for stomach cancer? 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To which gender is stomach cancer most prevalent? 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To which race is stomach cancer most prevalent? The stomach is an expandable sack located mostly under the left lung, between the muscular diaphragm which pushes up the lung, and the coiled small intestine. The stomach is closed by important organs in the abdomen. To the right of the stomach is the liver, to its lower left is the spleen, and underneath it is the pancreas. The esophagus enters the stomach at the gastro-esophageal junction, while the small intestine exits it at the lowermost antrum. The front of the stomach rests on the abdominal wall, and lower parts of it also contact the upper left kidney and transverse colon. The important areas of the stomach itself are the greater curvature, the lesser curvature, the fundus and the cardia. The stomach has a delicate inner lining, made up of columnar epithelial cells, and acid secreting cells called parietal cells. The chemicals that protect this lining are called prostaglandins. The stomach has an impressive blood supply, mainly from the celiac artery which comes off of the main artery, the aorta. There is also venous drainage of blood to the spleen and liver. A secondary drainage system, called the lymph system, filters the blood in normally pea-sized lymph nodes. These are connected to lymphatics in other abdominal areas by lymph channels. Lymph nodes are full of white blood cells that help purify the blood serum; lymph nodes often enlarge when they detect spread of diseases. The point is that the stomachs rich blood supply and many drainage paths can act as conduits for spread of infections or cancers. The main purpose for the stomach is digestion of foods. Digestive process begins with the saliva in the mouth. In our diet, the stomach activates Vitamin B12, secretes hydrochloric acid to break down food, and churns the food into pulp. It can also directly absorb substances like alcohol and caffeine. The stomach is susceptible to an increase in the concentration of hydrochloric acid brought on by stress, certain foods, and the effects of tobacco smoke. While the stomach is normally protected against its own acid by an inner membrane, breakdown of this membrane leads to inflammation of the stomach, called gastritis.   An area that loses its membrane is also at risk to get an actual hole, called an ulcer. An ulcer may be shallow, and heal quickly, or it may be very deep and even perforate the outer stomach wall. Perforation is a surgical emergency. Fortunately, there are many medications now available which help reduce stomach acid concentration such as   Zantac, Pepcid and Tagame t, helping ulcers heal and preventing formation of new ones. Also, soothing protectants such as Carafate and even artificial prostaglandins can be given. These medications are often given preventively when the body is under great stress, such as after major surgery. While most stomach problems are minor ones, such as a mild virus or indigestion, occasionally serious disease strikes the stomach. The stomach is composed of various cells, which are intricately combined together into tissues which form the organ. These cells divide to produce new ones, and grow very rapidly during womb life, early childhood and puberty. In adulthood, new cells are produced only to replace those that die of old age, injury or disease. Normally, division of cells is under very tight control. This control is exerted by the genes inside each cell, which are housed in long clumps forming chromosomes, which are visible under a light microscope. The genes themselves are made up of DNA, the master genetic code material. If the genes are damaged, say by chemicals or radiation, the control over cell division may be lost in one particular cell. Ultimately, cancer is considered a disease of the DNA. Stomach cancer starts in a single lung cell. That cell starts dividing haphazardly, making millions and billions of copies of itself. It takes up the nourishment needed by other cells, depriving them so the can cer can continue to grow. Quickly growing cells can clump up to form a tumor. A tumor simply means a swelling; it can be caused by inflammation or infection. A benign tumor only grows in its local area it cannot spread and is not cancer. By contrast, a tumor which can spread to other body areas is called malignant and this is cancer. The process of cancer spread to other areas is called metastasis, so only malignant tumors such as cancer can metastasize. Theoretically, cancer can spread to any area of the body, and it often grows better in its area of spread than in its area of origin. It is this capacity for spread that makes cancer so dangerous. If not treated successfully, it ultimately kills by debility, anemia, infection, and compromise of normal body functions. The body is made up of many types of cells. Normally, cells grow, divide and die.  Sometimes, cells mutate and begin to grow and divide more quickly than normal cells.  Rather than dying, these abnormal cells clump together to form tumors. If these tumors are cancerous they can invade and kill your bodys healthy tissues. From these tumors, cancer cells can spread and form new tumors in other parts of the body. By contrast, benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body. Stomach cancer, also called gastric cancer is the growth of cancer cells in the lining and wall of the stomach. There are 85% cases of gastric cancer which are   adenocarcinomas that occur in the lining of the stomach. Approximately 40% of cases develop in the lower part of the stomach (pylorus); 40% develop in the middle part (body); and 15% develop in the upper part (cardia). In about 10% of cases, cancer develops in more than one part of the organ. Stomach cancer can spread or metastasize to the esophagus or the small intestine, and can extend through the stomach wall to nearby lymph nodes and organs such as liver, pancreas, and colon. It also can metastasize to other parts of the body specifically the lungs, ovaries, bones. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2006, about 22,280 new cases of gastric cancer will be diagnosed in the United States and that about 11,430 people will die of the disease. Most people diagnosed with stomach cancer are in their 60s and 70s. The majority of these people who are diagnosed with gastric cancer are more than the age of 65.   Stomach cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Carcinoma of the stomach is the most common form of gastric neoplasm and accounts for about 2.6% of all cancer deaths (Cancer Facts and Figures, 1991). Stomach cancer has decreased 5-fold in the U.S.A. over the past 50 years. It is more common in males, extremely rare in children, and the average patient is 55 years old. The cause of stomach cancer is unknown, but there are certain predisposing factors recognized. Genetic factors seem to be important, since gastric cancer is more common in persons with blood group A. Geographic of environmental factors appear to be important since gastric cancer is common in Japan, China, Chile and Iceland. The incidence rate in Japan is one of the highest in the world. There are studies that showed that Japanese immigrants to the United States have an incidence rate comparable to that of other Americans. Genetic or hereditary risk factors include hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) syndrome and Li-Fraumeni syndrome which are conditions that result in a predisposition to cancer. People with type A blood also have an increased risk for stomach cancer. Medical conditions that increase the risk for the disease include pernicious anemia which results from a vitamin B-12 deficiency, chronic inflammation of the stomach or otherwise known as atrophic gastritis and intestinal polyps. The most important environmental factors in the cause of gastric cancer are (1) salt added to food; (2) food additives such as nitrates, in pickled or salted foods such as bacon; and (3) food factors in water and vegetables such as Vitamin C. Dietary salt enhances the conversion of nitrates to carcinogenic nitrosamines in the stomach. Salt is also caustic to the stomach and can cause chronic atrophic gastritis. Finally, hypertonic salt solutions delay gastric emptying. Delayed emptying increases the time during which carcinogenic nitrosamines can exert their effects on the stomach mucosa. The metabolism of nitrates and nitrites is very complex. Nitrates interact with amino acids in the stomach to form nitrosamines. The conversion of those carcinogenic nitrosamines is enhanced at a low PH by iodides and thiocyanates. Nitrates are thought to be active only when converted to nitrites and to cause stomach cancer once atrophic gastritis has occurred. Stomach cancer usually begins in the glands of the stomach mucosa. Approximately, 50% of all gastric cancers develop in the prepyloric antrum. Atrophic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia are strongly linked to the development of gastric cancer. Insufficient acid secretion by the atrophic mucosa creates a relatively alkaline environment that permits bacteria to multiply and act on nitrates. The resulting increase in nitrosamines damages the DNA of mucosal cells further, promoting metaplasia and neoplasia. Duodenal reflux may also contribute to intestinal metaplasia. The reflux contains caustic bile salts to destroy the mucosal barrier that normally protects the stomach. There are three general forms of gastric carcinoma. Ulcerating carcinoma is the most common type and must be differentiated from a benign gastric ulcer. Polypoid carcinoma appears as a cauliflowerlike mass protruding into the lumen and may arise from an adenomatous polyp. Infiltrating carcinoma may penetrate the entire thickness of the stomach wall and is responsible for the inflexible â€Å"leather bottle stomach† or otherwise known as linitis plastica. The clinical manifestations of stomach cancer come in stages. The early stage is generally asymptomatic of produce vague symptoms such as loss of appetite, malaise and indigestion. Later manifestations of gastric cancer include unexplained weight loss, upper abdominal pain, vomiting, change in bowel habits and anemia caused by persistent occult bleeding. The prognosis is poor because symptoms do not occur until the tumor has penetrated the muscle layers of the stomach, spread to surrounding tissues and entered the draining lymph nodes and veins, causing distant metastases. Generally the first manifestations of carcinoma are caused by distant metastases. There are a range of choices by which stomach cancer is diagnosed. The choice of diagnostic tests depends on the clinical manifestation at the time of presentation. Most symptoms suggest a problem in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Direct endoscopic visualization and biopsy usually establish the diagnosis. Another definitive technique is microscopic examination of exfoliated cells obtained by lavage during endoscopy- an examination using a flexible viewing tube. Endoscopy is the best diagnostic procedure because it allows a doctor to view the stomach directly; to check for Helicobacter pylori-the bacterium that may play a role in stomach cancer; and to obtain tissue samples for examination under a microscope. The noncancerous stomach polyps are removed using endoscopy. If carcinoma is confined to the stomach, surgery is usually performed to try to cure it. Most or all of the stomach and nearby lymph nodes are removed. The prognosis is good if the cancer has not penetrated the stomach wall too deeply. In the United States, the results of surgery are often poor because most people have extensive cancer by the time a diagnosis is made. In Japan, where cancers are detected earlier by mass screening using endoscopy, the results of the surgery are better. If the carcinoma has spread beyond the stomach, the goal of treatment is to ease the symptoms and prolong life. Thus, chemotherapy and radiation therapy may relieve symptoms. Sometimes, surgery is used to relieve symptoms. For instance is when the passage of food is obstructed at the far end of the trunk, and out the right or left gastric artery. The bleeding site is identified by arteriography, after which a vasopressin infusion is started. Newer experimental methods include electrocuagulation, photocoagulation and application of polymers. At times when conservative methods fail, surgery may be the only method of treatment even though these patients are critically ill and poor surgical risks. The most effective surgical procedure is total gastrectomy, since these erosions are multiple or diffuse and tend to bleed again. The following data show the rate of incidence of cancers in the United States that have been evident not just for those who are whites, but also among the blacks, either female or male.   Please click this http://www.cancer.org/docroot/stt/stt_0.asp and attach them to the paper. I made it right like this coz it is difficult to paste the maps, graphs etc. to this order. From this site, you can download the maps and graphs which will show the incidence of gastric cancer not just in the US but worldwide. Indeed, there are several factors that predispose the onset of stomach cancer. Whether these factors are genetically based or have been caused by environmental factors, it is critical to be well-educated about stomach cancer. One could not directly conclude whether stomach cancer is caused by genetics or by the environment. In fact, studies have shown that all these factors can cause stomach cancer to an individual and may even worsen the condition, as the case there may be. Having enough knowledge as well as making the right treatment choices can make the difference of life or death. Understanding the causes and treatments of stomach cancer will help a person be conscious of his health. Through awareness, the whole population will get rid of the factors that might cause this cancer. By doing so, the incidence of stomach cancer will be lowered down and that good and sound health will already be acquired by the population, regardless of gender, race or socio-economic conditions.

Mexican Atmospheres essays

Mexican Atmospheres essays When I visited Mexico for the first time I remember thinking that it was not the third world country that everyone had described to me. After a couple of days there and a little more venturing into Mexico I realized that it was really everything that had been described. While we were in the vacation areas and hotel resorts the atmosphere was very nice. They are decorated with festive ornaments, they play loud music, have plenty of gift shops, and many attractions for people to see. When we ventured outside of these areas things took a drastic turn from pretty and festive to dirty and poverty stricken. I realized that the pretty images that Hollywood gives people of Mexico is only true in certain places, and that it is actually a third world country. When we arrived in Mexico at the airport I really could not tell that it was a third world country. The one thing that really caught my attention while at the airport was that it was not air conditioned. The airport was dreadfully hot, not humid, just a very dry heat. I remember while standing in the customs line I was sweating as though I had been running a marathon. I was sweating so much that my shirt was sticking to me. The airport was decorated nicely with a mural of sea animals painted on ocean colored walls. The airport was very similar to the airports I was used to in America. It had all sorts of gift shops, restaurants and many stands with brochures of places to visit while in Mexico. The ride to the hotel was also very nice, and the scenery did not appear to be that much different than here in America. The roads were paved, much like ours, but there were swamps all around us that reminded me of the Everglades in Florida. The bus had most of the luxuries that our buses have and one additional feature that I was really not accustomed to. It had a cooler that was filled with Coronas and bottled water for sale. I had never in my life seen alcoholic beverages f...

Fail

When to Take a College Course Pass/Fail Most college courses require students to take them for a grade, but not always: In some cases, students can take a few courses as pass/fail during their time in college. Whether or not thats a good choice for you depends on a variety of factors, and there are a few things you need to know before choosing a pass/fail option over the regular grading system. What Is Pass/Fail? Its exactly what it sounds like: When you take a course pass/fail, your instructor simply decides whether your work qualifies you to pass or fail the class, rather than assign you a letter grade. As a result, it isnt factored into your GPA, and it will show up on your transcript differently. Assuming you pass, you will get the full course credits, just as if you had received a letter grade. When to Take a Course Pass/Fail There are a few situations in which you may want to take a college course pass/fail: 1. You dont need the grade.  Whether youre fulfilling graduation requirements or you just want to experiment with other areas of study, youll probably have to take a few courses outside your major. You may want to consider the pass/fail option if a letter grade in one of those courses isnt necessary for earning your degree or getting into  graduate school. 2. You want to take a risk. Pass/fail courses have no bearing on your GPA - what class might you take if you didnt have to worry about it affecting your grades? Pass/fail can be a good opportunity to expand your horizons or take a class that will really challenge you. 3. You want to reduce your stress. Maintaining good grades takes a lot of hard work, and opting for a pass/fail course can relieve some of the pressure. Keep in mind your school will have deadlines by which you have to declare youre taking the course as pass/fail, so it might not be an option for avoiding a bad grade at the last minute. Your school also likely limits how many courses you can take pass/fail, so youll want to carefully plan how to take advantage of the opportunity. Other Things to Consider Make sure youre choosing pass/fail for the right reasons, not just because you want to take it easy. Youll still need to study, do the reading, complete the homework  and pass the exams. If you slack off, the fail will show up on your transcript, not to mention the possibility youll have to make up for the credits you didnt earn. Even if you withdraw  from the class to avoid failing it, that will also show up on your transcript (unless you get out of it during a drop period). Keep in mind you may not be able to enroll in  all as a pass/fail student, and before you commit to a grading system, you may want to discuss the choice with your academic advisor or a trusted mentor.

Recruitment and Staffing Proposal Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Recruitment and Staffing Proposal - Coursework Example I will also suggest three detailed selection approaches that the company may consider when performing a cost-benefit analysis for each process. My final duty will be to recommend to you the best method that suits the business and solves its human resource challenges. Highly qualified staff is fundamental to ensure high performance of any organization (Joseph, n.d). However, finding the best employees depends on the methods of recruitment adopted by the firm. The problem of staffing proves even more challenging in this era than what it was in the past because of the shifting dynamism in employment patterns. Challenges also emanate in relation to matching organizational performance with the demand levels of the institutions (Joseph, n.d). Most of the problems of dynamism in employment result from high levels of competition in the job market. There is, therefore, a requirement that businesses consider adopting the best recruitment approaches, which will ensure the best employees in management positions. There are varied methods used when recruiting employees, which depend mostly on organizational needs. One such method is gamification, which involves posting of virtual problems and inviting potential candidates to solve (DeMarco, 2014). The method borrows from graphical computer games, which may serve as both an advertisement and staffing plan. The method’s success may result from the fact that it targets a particular job skill. The cost-benefit analysis for this rationale gives the company a challenge of designing skill-specific games for use in recruitment. Using the same approach may select the best candidates for the required skills and at the same time, introduce as particular product or service of the firm as an advert. Another approach is the Go Undercover Technique, which gives the selected candidates time long enough to prove their worth (DeMarco, 2014). Such a method is a matter of chance,

Criminal Cases in Health Care Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Criminal Cases in Health Care - Research Paper Example Similarly, the HIPAA laws sets the standards that oversee the safety of electronic data routinely collected from patients whenever they visit hospitals (McGee, 2014). In case of HIPAA violations, the healthcare provider in question is routinely stripped of his or her practicing license and fired from his or her place of work. Prosecution by the related authorities should then follow this and in case the accused is guilty, he or she should either be fined or imprisoned for a given duration of time (Pozgar, 2014). In as much as hospitals are not to blame in case of such an occurrence, the bodies that execute such laws occasionally fine hospitals as the event took place under their watch. The administrator should always make sure that information is accessed within the facility and by the relevant personnel. Ideally, corporate compliance would help in such situations, as hospitals would ensure that they block all the avenues through which patient data would leak, hence averting any potential

Drug Testing in the Workplace Essay -- Pre-Employment Drug Testing

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drug testing has become a very big issue for many companies. Approximately eighty-one percent of companies in the United States administer drug testing to their employees. Of these, seventy-seven percent of companies test employees prior to employment. Even with the commonality of drug testing, it is still a practice that is generally limited to larger corporations which have the financial stability, as well as the human resources to effectively carry out a drug testing program. In the United States, it is suggested that as many as 70 percent of drug users are employed. Now this is a huge chunk, but as a result of drug testing, these big corporations have a significantly lower percentage of the employed drug users on their workforce. Inversely, medium to smaller companies tend to have more. United States companies, who employ more than five hundred workers, employ only 1.3 percent of the employed drug users, while medium size companies, employing only twenty-five to five hundred employees, have 43 percent of the employed drug users on their payroll, and smaller companies, with fewer than twenty-five employees, provide jobs for the remaining 44 percent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now, why is it important for companies to perform drug tests? First, drug users are a third less productive than the average employee, and tend to take more sick days. They are almost four times more likely to cause an on the job accident and injure themselves as well as someone else. They are also five times more likely to injure themselves outside of the workplace, which in turn affects both performance and attendance. Now I?m sure almost everyone can attest to the fact that drugs, including alcohol can cause some serious injuries. A study by the United States Postal Service found that substance abusers, when compared to their non-substance abusing co-workers, are involved in 55 percent more accidents, and sustain 85 percent more on-the-job injuries? (Why Drug Test). Another study conducted by the National Council reports that ?80 percent of those injured in ?serious? drug-related accidents at work are not the drug abusing employees but non-using co-workers and others? (Why Drug Test). All of these facts relate back to the general duty of the employers to provide a safe work environment for all of their employees. Companies also want to create a safe, productive work environment in order ... ...Spring 2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   8.) Bryan Jr., Leslie A. ?Drug Testing in the Workplace.? Professional Safety. Oct.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2010.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   9.) Pryweller, Joseph. ?Insurers, States, Offer Incentives for Testing.? Plastics News.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  18 June 2001.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10.) Professional Services of America. Drug Free Workplace Policy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   11.) Bixby, Michael; Dudley-Beck, Caryn; Cihon, Patrick. The Legal Environment of Business. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2001.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   12.) Supreme Court Reporter October Term 2009 Volume 109 A. West Publishing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Company: St. Paul, Minnesota, 2009.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   13.) ?Drug Testing in the Workplace.? The American Civil Liberties Union.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.aclu.org/library/pbp5.html. 21 May 2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   14.) Daniels, Susan. ?Drug-testing Cuts Accident Costs: Study.? National   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Underwriter (Property and Casualty/Risk and Benefits Management   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edition v. 101). 23 June 2007.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   15.) Elkin, Sam. ?How to Establish a Drug-free Workplace.? Occupational Hazards v. 61. March 2011.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   16.) Thatcher, Mike. ?Chemical Warfare.? People Management. 24 Oct. 2010. 17.) ?Why Drug Test Laboratory Corporation of America 2003

Public Morality Essay

Public morality is often referred to as moral and ethical standards that are enforced in a society, by the law, the police, or social pressure, and applied to public life, to the content of the media and to conduct in public places. Public morality usually involves the regulation of sexual matters, which include prostitution and homosexuality, but it also addresses the issues of nudity, pornography, the acceptability of cohabitation before marriage, and the protection of children (Wikpedia, 2006). It has been suggested by some that there is a growing occurrence of over criminalization in the United States, that our police, prosecutorial, and judicial time, personnel and resources are being preoccupied with an overload in attempts to regulate public morality. The question has been asked as to just how far our government-sanctioned view of morality should intrude into the private lives of its citizens. If we think about history and what is taking place and has taken place not only in the United States but in other countries as well, it is easy to determine that there is not a phenomenon of over criminalization in this country and that, in fact, the exact opposite may be occurring. Government officials both write and enforce the laws of our society. As a consequence government, and those who comprise it, not only intones their own set their own morals and ethics but they are put into the position of judging those of others. But it is fair to ask whether or not true justice is inherent in this process. To address that question, it is first important to realize that justice is more than just law; justice is the product of morals and ethics (Kropotkin, 1923). Three philosophical outlines in particular can be used to demonstrate this correlation. Plato provides perhaps the most enlightening view of the concept of justice. Indeed, his writings serve as the basis for many of the later philosophers which would follow in his footsteps (Dantzig, 1955). In The Republic he gives us the basis of the existence of our modern-day government and the role of that government in ensuring justice. Through his wide-ranging discussion of the ideas of ethics and morality, however, we are able to establish that government is a man-made organization which enforces the desires of the majority, or at least the most influential, for the most part. Under this philosophical framework, therefore, government might not actually ensure justice but only the desires and wishes of the most powerful segment of our society. We can use either ancient or contemporary examples as to the successes and failures of government in providing justice. Given the various scandals and situations which have evolved over the history of the United States alone, the need for our governmental structure cannot be debated. It is our government which determines our actions and reactions. Nor is it debatable, however, that governmental structure, despite all of its attention to the concepts of ethics and morality, sometimes fails. There are numerous instances of such failures of course but there are also many instances of success. Government, therefore, is an integral if not perfect component of ensuring justice for our actions and deeds. John Stewart Mill and Immanuel Kant offer additional guidance on the concept of justice. Although seemingly contradictory, both Kants famous categorical imperative of reason and Mills concept of utilitarianism provide considerable insight to the inherent strengths and weaknesses of our concept of justice. While Kant approaches ethics from the standpoint that appropriate behavior is the result of social determination and that some thing such as right and wrong are simply principles which are inherent in human nature, Mill holds that terms such as good and right are defined on the basis of which behavior provides the greatest benefit to the largest number of people. Kant proposes instead that there is a categorical imperative in reason. All three of these philosophic views are important in understanding the role of the U. S. government in contemporary times. They prompt us to ask whether moral issues are an appropriate venue for governmental intervention. Should our government intrude on our personal behavior when that behavior does not compromise the welfare of others? The answer is that the sum total of our behavior does indeed impact others. That is true even when we are considering such highly controversial issues as sexual choice and reproductive rights. The problem with our government today is that it is backing off of the moral judgments around which it once revolved. It is not that our government is becoming more intrusive from a moral perspective. Indeed it is becoming less intrusive. If we look to other countries for guidance in regard to the appropriate role of the government in morality we can gain a better perspective of what is wrong with our own system. Japan, for example, is one of the most densely populated nations on the earth yet their crime rate is phenomenally low in comparison to other equally developed countries (Wertheimer and Adams, 1994). In fact, although Japan’s population density is approximately thirty times the density which exists in the United States, Japan maintains one of the earth’s lowest crime rates (Wertheimer and Adams, 1994). Its homicides are less than one-fifth of the homicides which occur in the U. S. , U. S. rapes are twenty-two times the number of rapes in Japan, and armed robberies in the U. S. are 114 times that of Japan (Wertheimer and Adams, 1994). Since ancient times the Japanese criminal justice system has placed an emphasis on traditional morality which simply has not been a component of the American system during any point in our history (Cooke, 1991). Although no penal codes existed during earlier Japanese history, there was enforcement of the moral code (Cooke, 1991). That same enforcement continues today both as a result of specific governmental intervention but also, and perhaps more importantly, as a result of societal concentration on acceptable moral behavior. In the U. S. , in comparison, we have backed off this concentration. We prefer to avoid the outcry of the few who are in favor of such moral transgressions as prostitution, gambling, and pornography at the risk of the majority. While we may consider such activities as personal choice, in reality, those choices affect not just the individual making the choice but society as a whole. References Cooke, Melinda W. (1991, Jan 1). Japan: Chapter 7E. The Criminal Justice System. Countries of the World. Dantzig, Tobias. (1955). The Bequest of the Greeks. Charles Scribner and Sons, New York. Kropotkin, P. (1923). Ethics, Origin and Development. New York: The Dial Press. Wertheimer, Linda and Noah Adams. (1994, Aug 18). Japanese and American Crime and Culture Compared. All Things Considered (NPR). Wikipedia. (2006). Definition of Public Morality. Retrieved April 22, 2006, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/publicmorality.